The Tech Leaf

What is IP Routing? IP routing is the field of routing methodologies of Internet Protocol (IP) packets within and across IP networks. This involves not only protocols and technologies but includes the policies of the worldwide organization and configuration of Internet infrastructure. In each IP network node, the following IP routing involves the determination of a suitable path for a network packets from a source to its destination in an IP network. Therefore the process uses static configuration rules or dynamically obtained status information to select specific packet forwarding methods to direct traffic to the next available intermediate network node one hop closer to the desired final destination, a total path potentially spanning multiple computer networks. Networks are separated from each other by specialized hosts, called gateways or routers with specialized software support optimized for routing. In routers, the following packets arriving at an interface are examine for so

Internet Protocol Address (IP Address) Explained              IP-ADDRESS is a logical address or software address which mentions the network & host in Hierarchical manner. It is a 32 bit address in 4 Octet Eight. There are two types of IP Addresses Public IP Address Private IP Address e.g.     1 st Octet             2 nd                    3 rd                       4 th          11111111  .   11111111     .  11111111   .11111111     = 32 bit             (eight)                  (eight)                     (8)             (eight)                                     10          0  0  5                                   Net ID     Host ID CLASSES OF IP- ADDRESS The classes of IP Addresses have 5 types of classes they are CLASS                                           RANGE A                                                1-126  ( 127- loopback address (or) Self Pinging Address)   To check the connectivity of LAN B                                      

What is IEEE 802.1X? IEEE 802.1X is an IEEE standard for post based network access control (PNAC). It is a part of IEEE 802.1 group of networking protocols. It provides an authentication mechanism to devices wishing to attach to a LAN or WLAN. IEEE 802.1X defines the encapsulation of the extensible authentication protocol (EAP), which is known as “EAP over LAN” or EAPOL. EAPOL was originally designed for IEEE 802.3 Ethernet in 802.1X-2001, but it was clarified to suit other IEEE 802 LAN technologies such as IEEE 802.11 wireless and fiber distribution data interface (ISO 9314-2) in 802.1X-2004. 802.1X authentication involves three parties such that a supplicant, an authenticator, and an authentication server. The supplicant is a client device such as laptop that can be able to attach to the LAN or WLAN. The term “supplicant” is also used interchangeably to refer to the software running on the client that provides credentials to the authenticator. The authenticator is a network device wh

What is IEEE 802.11? IEEE 802.11 is a part of the IEEE 802 set of local area network (LAN) protocols and specifies the set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) Wi-Fi computer communication in various frequencies, including but not limited to 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz. 6GHz, and 60 GHz frequency bands. The base version of the standard was released in 1997, and has had subsequent amendments. The standard and amendments provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand. IEEE 802 are the world’s most widely used wireless computer networking standards, used in most home and office networks to allow laptops, printers and smartphones to communicate to each other and access the Internet without connecting wires. They are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) LAN/MAN standards committee (IEEE 802). The 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over th

What is IEEE 802.11b? IEEE 802.11b-1999 or 802.11b, is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 wireless networking that extends throughput up to 11 Mbit/s using the same 2.4 GHz band. A related amendment was incorporated into the IEEE 802.11-2007 standard. 802.11 is a set of IEEE standards that govern wireless networking transmission methods. They are commonly use today in their 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac and 802.11ax versions to provide wireless connectivity in the home, office and some commercial establishments. Wi-Fi is an unofficial retronym for 802.11b. 802.11b is use in a point-to-multipoint configuration, wherein an access point communicates via an omnidirectional antenna with mobile clients within the range of the access point. Typical range depends on the radio frequency environment, output power and sensitivity of the receiver. Allowable bandwidth is share across clients in discrete channels. A directional antenna focuses transmit and receive power into a smaller fi

What is IEEE 802.11g? 802.11g is the third modulation standard for wireless LAN. It works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b) but operates at a maximum raw data rate of 54 Mbit/s. Using the CSMA/CA transmission scheme, 31.4 Mbit/s is the maximum net throughput possible for packets of 1500 bytes in size and a 54 Mbit/s wireless rate (identical to 802.11a core, except for some additional legacy overhead for backward compatibility). In practice, access points may not have an ideal implementation and may therefore not be able to achieve even 31.4 Mbit/s throughput with 1500 byte packets. 1500 bytes is the usual limit for packets on the Internet and therefore a relevant size to benchmark against. Therefore smaller packets give even lower theoretical throughput, down to 3 Mbit/s using 54 Mbit/s rate and 64 byte packets. Also, the available throughput is shared between all stations transmitting, including the AP. Both downstream and upstream traffic limited to shared total of 31.4 Mbit/s using

  What is IEEE 802.11x? 802.11x is generic term to refer to the IEEE 802.11 standard for defining communication over a wireless LAN (WLAN). 802.11, commonly known as Wi-Fi, specifies an over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients. These standards are used to implement WLAN communication in 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz frequency bands. The term is not officially used or defined. Rather, it refers to the common flavors of Wi-Fi, most notably 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n. Some of the known IEEE standards association standard and amendments are 802.11-1997: The original standard released in 1997 provided 1-2 Mbps transmission speed in the 2.4 GHz band using Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) or Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). It is currently obsolete. 802.11a: Provides a transmission speed of up to 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz band using Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM). 802.11b: Works in the 2.4 GHz band and can

What is Internet Protocol (IP)? The internet protocol is a set of rules by which data sent from source computer to destination computer over internet. The data that traveled across the internet is divided into smaller pieces called packets. The internet protocols information is attached to each packet. Based on IP addresses in the packet headers, it delivers the packets from the source host to the destination host, then internet protocols defines the packet structure that encapsulates the data to be delivered. Each computer (or host) that connects to the internet has unique IP address that identifies from all other computers on the internet. Therefore the transport protocols is used in combination with internet protocols, the most common transport protocols are TCP and UDP. The original Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was introduced by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974. The first major version of the internet protocols is Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the dominant protoco

What is IMAP? IMAP stands for “Internet Message Access Protocol” is an internet standard protocol that stores email messages on a mail server, but allows the email clients to manage (view and manipulate) the messages from the mail server over TCP/IP, they were stored locally on the email client’s computing device. The IMAP server was typically listen on port number 143 and IMAP over SSL is assigned the port number 993. IMAP was designed with the goal of permitting complete management of an email box by multiple email clients, therefore the clients generally leave messages on the server until the user explicitly deletes them, Virtually all modern e-mail clients and servers support IMAP, which along with the earlier POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) are the two most prevalent standard protocols for email retrieval. The webmail service providers are such as Outlook.com, Gmail, and Yahoo! Mail also provide support for both IMAP and POP3. The Internet Message Access Protocol is an Applicati

What is ISDN? ISDN stands for “Integrated Services Digital Network” is a set of communication standards that enables the digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the telecommunication networks and it operates over copper-based systems to provide higher data speed and better quality than analog transmission. It is a circuit-switched telephone network system for voice or data and it also allows access to packet-switched networks. The main future of ISDN is that on the same telephone line it can integrate both voice and data at the same time and ISDN was design to run on the digital telephone system. In some areas, ISDN found as a major market application for internet access, in which ISDN typically provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and downstream directions. Through channel bonding, it can achieve a greater data rate that is the ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (Six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded. In the OSI m

What is InfiniBand? InfiniBand (IB) is a standard of computer networking communications which used in high performance computing that features very low latency and high throughput. It is use for data interconnect both among and within computers and it also used as either a direct or switched interconnect between servers, as well as an interconnect between storage systems. It is design to be scalable and uses a switched fabric network topology. InfiniBand In 2014, it was most commonly used interconnect in supercomputers. Mellanox and Intel manufacture InfiniBand host bus adapters and network switches. In February 2016, it was reports that Oracle Corporation had engineered its own InfiniBands switch units and server adapter chips for use in its own product lines and by third parties. Therefore Mellanox IB cards are available for Solaris, FreeBSD, RHEL (Red Hat Enterprise Linux), SLES (SUSE Linux Enterprise Server), Windows, HP-UX, VMware, and AIX. An interconnect, InfiniBands compe

What is IEEE 802.11e? IEEE 802.11e-2005 or 802.11e is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard that defines a set of Quality of Service (QoS) enhancements for wireless local area network (LAN) applications through modifications to the media access control (MAC) layer. The standard is considers of critical importance for delay-sensitive applications, such as voice over wireless LAN and streaming multimedia. The amendment has been incorporate into the published IEEE 802.11-2007 standard. IEEE 802.11e Specifications Original 802.11 Media Access Control (MAC) Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) Point Coordination Function (PCF) Media Access Control (MAC) Protocol Operations A diagram of the 7-layer OSI model with the modifications made by the 802.11 standard and the 802.11e amendment The 802.11e enhances the DCF and the PCF, through a new coordination function: the hybrid coordination function (HCF). Within the HCF, there are two methods of

  Hybrid Topology Hybrid Topology is the combination of two or more different Topology. For example combination of bus topology, ring topology and star topology. A network is connected to the two or more ring topology and also connected with a star topology. The example for ring topologies is in one department and star topologies in another department is combined to form hybrid topology, an large hybrid network example is internet. Advantages Its Troubleshooting is easy. In this type of topology easy to increase a size that is scalable. It contains a Network flexibility. Reliable Disadvantages It design is more complex. Its hub is costly. Its infrastructure is also very costly. Hybrid Topology In above diagram it shows the transmission of data from one node to another node with the help of wired area networks. It connects both star and ring network protocols for data transmission. The components are connected to this network are bridges, switc

  What is Gnutella? Gnutella is a large peer-to-peer network, it was celebrated two decades of existence on 14 th March 2020 and it has millions of users for peer-to-peer file sharing. It was the first peer-to-peer network of its kind, leading to other, later networks adopting the model. However in June 2005, Gnutella's population was 1.81 million computers increasing to over three million nodes by January 2006. In late 2007, it was the most popular file-sharing network on the Internet with an estimated market share of more than 40%.   History of Gnutella In early 2000, the Gnutella is also called a first client from which the network got its name was developed by Justin Frankel and Tom Pepper of Nullsoft, soon after the company’s acquisition by AOL. On March 14 the program was made available for download on Nullsoft’s servers. Therefore the event was prematurely announced on Slashdot, and thousands downloaded the program that day.  The source code was to be released lat

What is Firewall? A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing devices based on the defined set of security rules. The purpose of a firewall is to establish a barrier between a trusted internal network and an untrusted external network (such as the internet) in order to block malicious traffic like viruses and hackers. Therefore the firewall can be hardware, software or cloud-based which monitor and control all outgoing and incoming traffic, each type of firewall having its own defined set of security rules based on this it accepts, rejects or drops that specific traffic. Firewall Process Types of Firewall Category Network Firewall - Filter traffic between two or more networks and run on network hardware Host based Firewall - Run on host computers and control network traffic in and out of those machines. Firewall Task Defend resources Validate access Manage and control network traffic Record and report on events Act as an intermediary Types